ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS AND MARRIAGE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF CUSTOMS, TRADITIONS, AND RITUALS IN SUMERIAN, BABYLONIAN, PERSIAN, EGYPTIAN, GREEK, ROMAN, CHINESE, EUROPEAN, AFRICAN AND AMERICAN CULTURES
Keywords:
Marriage, Civilizations, Customs, America, Roman.Abstract
This comparative study explores the diverse customs, traditions, and rituals surrounding marriage in various ancient civilizations, including Sumerian, Babylonian, Persian, Egyptian, Greek, Roman, Chinese, European, African, and American cultures.The study examines gender roles, marriage practices, and the historical and cultural contexts that have shaped them, as well as how marriage has contributed to and upheld social order.It demonstrates that although marriage was regarded as a sacred institution by all cultures, the particular traditions and ceremonies varied widely. This research uses qualitative methodology, which is done through the analysis of secondary sources, scholarly analysis, and thematic analysis of marriage practices among the selected civilizations. While arranged weddings were widespread in Sumerian and Babylonian societies, legal considerations like dowries and divorce laws were highly regarded in Greek and Roman societies. The study also emphasizes how different gender roles and expectations are in marriage, with some cultures emphasizing the submissive role of women while others value marriages with more equal partners. This study sheds light on the nuanced and varied approaches that ancient civilizations had to the institution of marriage and highlights the significance of comprehending previous cultural practices to better understand the roots of our present society.
References
Adekunle, J. (2007). Culture and customs of Rwanda (pp. 105-106). Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Adrados, F. R. (2009). Greek wisdom literature and the middle Ages: the lost Greek models and Their Arabic and Castilian Translations (Vol. 14). Peter Lang.
Akhter, N. (2021). Analytical Study of the Socio-Religious Condition of Early Ancient Egyptian Civilization. Al-Aijaz Research Journal of Islamic Studies & Humanities, 5(3), 47-54.http://arjish.com/index.php/arjish/article/view/490
Ali, M. E. (2020). Marriage and Divorce in Ancient Egypt and Ancient Iraq (Mesopotamia): A comparative Study. International Journal of Heritage, Tourism and Hospitality, 14(1), 113-126. https://journals.ekb.eg/article_122056.html
Anderson, J. A. (1999). Frontier management and tribute relations along the Empire's southern border: China and Vietnam in the 10th and 11th centuries. University of Washington.https://www.proquest.com/openview/9558c7c731013a4710ef571c6b64e261/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Anderson, S. (2007). The economics of dowry and brideprice. Journal of economic perspectives, 21(4), 151-174. https://www.aeaweb.org/articles?id=10.1257/jep.21.4.151
Ando, C. (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: the critical century. Edinburgh University Press.
Aneni, M. O. (2016). Politics of the Ptolemaic dynasty. Ogirisi: A New Journal of African Studies, 12, 146-169. https://www.ajol.info/index.php/og/article/view/141252
Asher-Greve, J. M., &Westenholz, J. G. (2013). Goddesses in context: on divine powers, roles, relationships and gender in Mesopotamian textual and visual sources (Vol. 259). Academic Press/Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/135436/
Ashraf, I., Khanum, A., & Akhtar, S. (2022). An Analytical Study of the Mesopotamian Civilization. Perennial Journal of History, 3(1), 237-247. http://pjh.wum.edu.pk/index.php/ojs/article/view/112
Baines, J., &Malek, J. (2000). Cultural atlas of ancient Egypt. Checkmark Books. https://ixtheo.de/Record/1615702164
Baird, J. M. (2021). The Patriarchs and Near Eastern Laws and Customs: How the Patriarchs Interacted with Mesopotamian Society. Diligence: Journal of the Liberty University Online Religion Capstone in Research and Scholarship, 8(1), 8. https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/djrc/vol8/iss1/8/
Bardis, P. D. (1964). Early Christianity and the family. Sociological Bulletin, 13(2), 1-23. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0038022919640201?journalCode=soba
Bian, H., & Su, H. (2022). Research on the Design of Public Space in Urban Renewal Based on Multicriteria Cluster Decision-Making. Advances in Meteorology, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/7186946
Birley, A. R. (2002). Septimius Severus: the African emperor. Routledge.
Boltz, W. G. (1986). Early Chinese writing. World Archaeology, 17(3), 420-436. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00438243.1986.9979980
Brooks, C. (2022). The Bronze Age and the Iron Age. Western Civilization: A Concise History. https://louis.pressbooks.pub/westernciv/chapter/chapter-3-the-bronze-age/
Bryant, T. (2005). The Life and Times of Hammurabi. Mitchell Lane Publishers, Inc...
Burkert, W. (2007). Babylon, Memphis, Persepolis: eastern contexts of Greek culture. Harvard University Press.
Burrows, M. (1940). The ancient oriental background of Hebrew levirate marriage. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 77(1), 2-15. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/1355235?journalCode=basor
Clarke, M. E. (2011). Xinjiang and China's rise in Central Asia-a history (Vol. 64). Taylor & Francis.
Connah, G. (2015). African civilizations: an archaeological perspective. Cambridge University Press.
Cook, R. J., & Dickens, B. M. (2003). Human rights dynamics of abortion law reform. Hum. Rts. Q., 25,
https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/hurq25&div=8&id=&page=
Coontz, S. (2006). From yoke mates to soul mates: Emergence of the love match and the male provider marriage. Marriage, a history: From obedience to intimacy or how love conquered marriage, 145-160.
Cvijić, J. (1918). The zones of civilization of the Balkan Peninsula. Geographical Review, 5(6), 470-482. https://www.jstor.org/stable/207806
Deacon, D. T. (1982). The nature and development of the theme-form violation-within-containment in Harold Pinter's plays and Francis Bacon's paintings. Ohio University. https://www.proquest.com/openview/db145fa137e9f86d19fcc89e4efab3fe/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Deutscher, G. (2000). Syntactic change in Akkadian: the evolution of sentential complementation. OUP Oxford.
Diop, C. A., & Cook, M. (2012). The African origin of civilization: Myth or reality. Chicago Review Press.
Dixon, S. (1992). The Roman Family. JHU Press.
Doyle, K. O. (1999). The social meanings of money and property. Sage.
Englund, R. (2001). The state of decipherment of Proto-Elamite.
https://pure.mpg.de/rest/items/item_2273899_1/component/file_2273897/content
Esherick, J. W. (1995). Ten theses on the Chinese revolution. Modern China, 21(1), 45-76. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/009770049502100103
Eskridge Jr, W. N. (1993). A history of same-sex marriage. Virginia Law Review, 1419-1513. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1073379
Farazmand, A. (2002). Administrative legacies of the Persian world-state empire: Implications for modern public administration, part 1. Public Administration Quarterly, 280-316. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41288175
Fischer, D. (1994). In search of the historical Adam: part 2. Perspectives on Science and Christian faith, 46(1), 47-57.
Fleming, R. M. (1939). Physical heredity in human hybrids. Annals of Eugenics, 9(1), 55-81.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-1809.1939.tb02197.x
Fohs, F. J. (1948). Petroliferous provinces of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. AAPG Bulletin, 32(3), 317-350. https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/aapgbull/article-abstract/32/3/317/547065/PETROLIFEROUS-PROVINCES-OF-UNION-OF-SOVIET
Foxhall, L. (1989). Household, gender and property in classical Athens. The Classical Quarterly, 39(1), 22-44.
Garland, R. (1990). The Greek way of life: from conception to old age. Duckbacks. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130000795641566208
Gelb, I. J. (1961). The early history of the West Semitic peoples. Journal of Cuneiform Studies, 15(1), 27-47.
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.2307/1359584?journalCode=jcs
Gibson, M. (1969). The city and area of Kish (Doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago). https://www.proquest.com/openview/5c47c552f20ac6d9f987640d1c8b9e0a/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y
Glazebrook, A., & Olson, K. (2013). Greek and roman marriage. A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities, 69-82.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781118610657.ch5
Goody, J. (1983). The development of the family and marriage in Europe. Cambridge University Press.
Goody, J. (1990). The Oriental, the Ancient and the Primitive: Systems of Marriage and the Family in the Pre-industrial Societies of Eurasia. Cambridge University Press.
Hamada, K. (2004). China's entry into the WTO and its impact on the. Doha and beyond: the future of the multilateral trading system, 26.
Harper, P. O., Aruz, J., & Tallon, F. (Eds.). (1992). the Royal City of Susa: Ancient Near Eastern Treasures in the Louvre. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Hart, L. K. (1999). Culture, civilization, and demarcation at the northwest borders of Greece. American Ethnologist, 26(1), 196-220.
https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1525/ae.1999.26.1.196
Hobley, A. S. (1995). An examination of Roman bronze coin distribution in the western empire AD 81-192. University of London, University College London (United Kingdom). https://www.proquest.com/openview/f8ba2d32310c8b88bce5f5e4076705da/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2026366&diss=y
Huang, R. (1997). China: A macro history. ME Sharpe.
Hunt, N. B. (2008). Living in Ancient Egypt. Infobase Publishing.
Jacobsen, T. (1943). Primitive democracy in ancient Mesopotamia. Journal of Near Eastern Studies, 2(3), 159-172.
https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/370672?journalCode=jnes
Jones, G., & Shen, H. H. (2008). International marriage in East and Southeast Asia: Trends and research emphases. Citizenship studies, 12(1), 9-25. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13621020701794091
Junod, H. A. (1913). The life of a South African tribe (Vol. 2). Attinger frères.
Kaufman, W., & Green, J. (1997). Life in ancient Rome. Courier Corporation.
Keeley, L. H. (1996). War before civilization. OUP USA.
Keightley, D. N. (1996). Art, ancestors, and the origins of writing in China. Representations, 56, 68-95.
Khatun, M., Islam, M. A., & Latif, A. K. M. A. (2023). Crossing the Divide: Exploring the Complexities and Opportunities of Interreligious and Interfaith Marriages in Contemporary Society. International Review of Literary Studies, 5(2), 1-20. http://irlsjournal.com/ojs/index.php/irls/article/view/72
Kramer, S. N. (1963). The Sumerians: Their history, culture, and character. University of Chicago Press.
Kuhrt, A. (2001). The Achaemenid Persian Empire (c. 550–c. 330 BCE): Continuities, adaptations, transformations. Empires: perspectives from archaeology and history, 93, 123.
Kyle, D. (1999). The Otavalo trade diaspora: social capital and transnational entrepreneurship. Ethnic and racial studies, 22(2), 422-446. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/014198799329549
Le Goff, J. (2009). The birth of Europe. John Wiley & Sons.
Lee, L. X. H., Stefanowska, A. D., & Wiles, S. (2015). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese women: antiquity through Sui, 1600 BCE-618 CE. Routledge.
Leick, G. (2005). The Babylonians: an introduction. Routledge.
Loewe, M., & Shaughnessy, E. L. (Eds.). (1999). The Cambridge history of ancient China: From the origins of civilization to 221 BC. Cambridge University Press.
Lovell, J. (2007). The Great Wall: China against the World, 1000 BC–AD 2000. Open Road+Grove/Atlantic.
Mack, R. E. (1979). The code of Hammurabi. https://ixtheo.de/Record/1323455248
Macklin, M. G., & Lewin, J. (2015). The rivers of civilization. Quaternary Science Reviews, 114, 228-244.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0277379115000608
Mao, A. (2015). Getting over the patriarchal barriers: women’s management of men’s smoking in Chinese families. Health education research, 30(1), 13-23. https://academic.oup.com/her/article/30/1/13/683828
Mark, J. J. (2014). Mesopotamia: The Rise of the Cities. Ancient History Encyclopedia. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/678/mesopotamia-the-rise-of-the-cities/
Marshall, T. (2016). Prisoners of geography: ten maps that explain everything about the world (Vol. 1). Simon and Schuster.
Maspero, H. (1928). The Origins of the Chinese Civilization. US Government printing office.
McNeill, W. H. (2009). The rise of the West: A history of the human community. University of Chicago Press.
Mehta-Jones, S. (2005). Life in ancient Mesopotamia. Crabtree Publishing Company.
Meskell, L. (2021). Object worlds in ancient Egypt: Material biographies past and present. Routledge.
Messing, S. D. (1957). The highland-plateau Amhara of Ethiopia. University of Pennsylvania.
Min, P. G., & Kim, C. (2009). Patterns of intermarriages and cross-generational in-marriages among native-born Asian Americans. International Migration Review, 43(3), 447-470. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2009.00773.x
Mireaux, É. (1959). Daily Life in the Time of Homer, safrancuskogprevela Iris Sells. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130000795966480384
Montgomery, D. R. (2012). Dirt: The erosion of civilizations. University of California Press.
Moore, M. B., & Kelle, B. E. (2011). Biblical history and Israel's past: The changing study of the bible and history. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.
Morozova, G. S. (2005). A review of Holocene avulsions of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and possible effects on the evolution of civilizations in lower Mesopotamia. Geoarchaeology, 20(4), 401-423. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/gea.20057
Morrow, J. A. (2016). Restoring the Balance: Using the Qur’an and the Sunnah to Guide a Return to the Prophet’s Islam. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Morstein-Marx, R., & Rosenstein, N. (2006). The transformation of the Republic. A Companion to the Roman Republic, 625-37.
https://www.classics.ucsb.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/2006-The-Transformation-of-the-Republic.pdf
Murowchick, R. E. (Ed.). (1994). China: Ancient culture, modern land (Vol. 2). University of Oklahoma press.
Murray, G. W. (1951). The Egyptian climate: An historical outline. The Geographical Journal, 117(4), 422-434. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1790684
Nemet-Nejat, K. R. (1998). Daily life in ancient Mesopotamia. Greenwood Publishing Group.
Nguyen, N. L. (2006). Roman Rape: An Overview of Roman Rape Laws from the Republican Period to Justinian's Reign. Mich. J. Gender & L., 13, 75. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/mjgl13&div=8&id=&page=
Nielsen, J. P. (2020). The Family in the Ancient near East. A Companion to the Ancient near East, 111-124.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/9781119362500.ch7
O'Connor, D. B., & Silverman, D. P. (Eds.). (1995). Ancient Egyptian Kingship (Vol. 9). Brill.
Pallis, S. A. (1956). The antiquity of Iraq: a handbook of Assyriology.
https://ixtheo.de/Record/1111804664
Parkinson, W. A., &Galaty, M. L. (2007). Secondary states in perspective: An integrated approach to state formation in the prehistoric Aegean. American Anthropologist, 109(1), 113-129.
https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1525/aa.2007.109.1.113
Paul, L., & Paul, B. D. (1963). Changing marriage patterns in a highland Guatemalan community. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 19(2), 131-148. https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/soutjanth.19.2.3629164?journalCode=soutjanth
Peterson, G. (2013). Overseas Chinese in the People's Republic of China. Routledge.
Pines, Y. (2016). China, imperial: 1. Qin dynasty, 221–207 BCE. The Encyclopedia of Empire, 1-6.
Porada, E. (1993). Why cylinder seals? Engraved cylindrical seal stones of the ancient Near East, fourth to first millennium BC. The Art Bulletin, 75(4), 563-582. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00043079.1993.10786560
Reed, G. (1986). Ancient astronomers along the Nile. The Science Teacher, 53(6), 59-62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24140036
Retherford, R. D., Ogawa, N., &Matsukura, R. (2001). Late marriage and less marriage in Japan. Population and development review, 27(1), 65-102. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1728-4457.2001.00065.x
Richardson, D. B. (2019). Spengler’s “Magian” Classification Applied to an Unrecognized Ecumene: The Near East, 1500 to 0 BCE.
Comparative Civilizations Review, 81(2), 8. https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2115&context=ccr
Rohrlich, R. (1980). State formation in Sumer and the subjugation of women. Feminist Studies, 6(1), 76-102. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3177651
Roller, D. W. (2010). Cleopatra: a biography. Oxford University Press.
Rudgley, R. (2000). The lost civilizations of the Stone Age. Simon and Schuster.
Sazonov, V., Mölder, H., Espak, P., &Saumets, A. (2020). Cultural Crossroads in the Middle East: The Historical, Cultural and Political Legacy of Intercultural Dialogue and Conflict from the Ancient near East to the Present Day (p. 430). University of Tartu Press. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/47017
Scheidel, W. (2008). Monogamy and polygyny in Greece, Rome, and world history. Rome, and World History (June 2008).
https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1214729
Schulz, R., & Seidel, M. (1998). Egypt: the world of the pharaohs. (No Title). https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1130282272309185152
Shaw, B. D. (1984). Bandits in the Roman Empire. Past & Present, (105), 3-52. https://www.jstor.org/stable/650544
Shaw, B. D. (1987). The age of Roman girls at marriage: some reconsiderations. The Journal of Roman Studies, 77, 28-46.
Sherzer, J. (1990). Verbal art in San Blas: Kuna culture through its discourse (Vol. 21). Cambridge University Press.
Shiming, Z. (2006). A historical and jurisprudential analysis of Suzerain–Vassal State relationships in the Qing Dynasty. Frontiers of History in China, 1(1), 124-157. https://brill.com/view/journals/fhic/1/1/article-p124_7.xml
Siljanen, E. (2017). Judeans of Egypt in the Persian period (539-332 BCE) in light of the Aramaic Documents. https://helda.helsinki.fi/handle/10138/176213
Silver, C. G. (1999). Strange and secret peoples: Fairies and Victorian consciousness. Oxford University Press on Demand.
Soules, J. (2010). For the Glory of Ahuramazda: The Political Effects of Zoroastrianism on Early Achaemenid Persia (Doctoral dissertation).
https://minds.wisconsin.edu/handle/1793/60912
Spickermann, W. (2021). The Roman Empire. The Limits of Universal Rule. Eurasian Empires Compared, 111-140.
SSu-ma, C., Sima, Q., & Nienhauser, W. H. (1994). The Grand Scribe's Records: The Basic Annals of Pre-Han China (Vol. 7). Indiana University Press.
Stikker, A. (2002). Closing the gap: Exploring the history of gender relations. Amsterdam University Press.
Sulprizio, C. (2020). Gender and Sexuality in Juvenile’s Rome: Satire 2 and Satire 6 (Vol. 59). University of Oklahoma Press.
Swaine, M. D., Daly, S. A., & Greenwood, P. W. (2000). Interpreting China's Grand Strategy: Past, Present, and Future. Rand Corporation.
Tellier, L. N. (2019). Urban world history: An economic and geographical perspective. Springer Nature.
https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-24842-0
Thomson, G. (1943). The Greek Calendar. The Journal of Hellenic Studies, 63, 52-65. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-hellenic-studies/article/abs/greek-calendar/FA1DB8CF98D518CF728D4A43F31E42CF
Treggiari, S. (2007). Terentia, Tullia and Publilia: the women of Cicero's family. Routledge.
Turner, E. G., & Walbank, F. W. (1984). Ptolemaic Egypt. The Cambridge Ancient History. 7, 1. The Hellenistic world, 1, 118-174.
https://ixtheo.de/Record/1590042255
Urbanczyk, P. (2001). Europe around the year 1000. WydawnictwoDiG. https://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a134805.pdf
Urch, E. J. (1929). The law code of Hammurabi. ABAJ, 15, 437. https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/abaj15&div=135&id=&page=
Vaerting, M. (2002). The dominant sex: A study in the sociology of sex differentiation. The Minerva Group, Inc.
Van der Putten, F. P. (2016). Infrastructure and geopolitics: China’s emerging presence in the eastern Mediterranean. Journal of Balkan and Near Eastern Studies, 18(4), 337-351. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19448953.2016.1195978
Van Engen, J. (1986). The Christian Middle Ages as a historiographical problem. The American Historical Review, 91(3), 519-552. https://academic.oup.com/ahr/article-abstract/91/3/519/47024
Vargas, I., & Gallegos, H. (1990). Sumer: where engineering was born. Journal of professional issues in engineering, 116(1), 83-92.
https://ascelibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1061/(ASCE)1052-3928(1990)116:1(83)
VerSteeg, R. (2023). Ancient Egypt and Laws Relating to the Status of Women. Women & Criminal Justice, 33(1), 1-13.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08974454.2021.2004971
Vishnia, R. F. (2012). State, Society and Popular Leaders in Mid-Republican Rome 241-167 BC. Routledge.
Waerzeggers, C. (2020). Changing marriage practices in Babylonia from the late Assyrian to the Persian period. Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, 7(2), 101-131. https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/janeh-2020-0006/html
Wang, N., Jia, L., Si, Y., &Jia, X. (2020). Isotopic results reveal possible links between diet and social status in Late Shang Dynasty (ca. 1250–1046 BC) tombs at Xiaohucun, China. Atmosphere, 11(5), 451. https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/11/5/451
Ward, S. R. (2014). Immortal, Updated Edition: a military history of Iran and its armed forces. Georgetown University Press.
Waters, M. (2014). Ancient Persia: A concise history of the Achaemenid Empire, 550–330 BCE. Cambridge University Press.
Wells, B. (2005). Sex, lies, and virginal rape: The slandered bride and false accusation in Deuteronomy. Journal of Biblical Literature, 124(1), 41-72. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30040990
Wendt, H. (2016). At the Temple Gates: The Religion of Freelance Experts in the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press.
Westermarck, E. (1921). The history of human marriage, 3 vols. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/1923-10418-000
Whiting, R. M. (1995). Amorite tribes and nations of second-millennium Western Asia. Civilizations of the Ancient near East, 2, 1231-1242.
http://www.ericlevy.com/Revel/Intro2/Amorite%20Tribes%20-%20CANE.PDF
Whittle, S. (2019). “Declared to Be Son of God in Power”: Romans 1: 4 and the Iconography of Imperial Apotheosis. Son of God: Divine Son ship in Jewish and Christian Antiquity, 158.
Wood, E. M. (2015). Peasant-citizen and slave: The foundations of Athenian democracy. Verso Books.
Wu, M. (2015). Education and social selection in ancient China: semantics, conceptual transformation and social change. PaedagogicaHistorica, 51(3), 247-263. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00309230.2014.934383
Zaslavsky, C. (1999). Africa counts: Number and pattern in African cultures. Chicago Review Press.
Zheng, H., Zhou, Y., Yang, Q., Hu, Z., Ling, G., Zhang, J., & Wu, W. (2018). Spatial and temporal distribution of Neolithic sites in coastal China: Sea level changes, geomorphic evolution and human adaption. Science China Earth Sciences, 61, 123-133. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11430-017-9121-y
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Author(s)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
